The Rise of the Marathas

Chapter at a glance

• The Marathas, native to the Deccan plateau and speakers of Marathi, rose as a political power in the 17th century after a strong cultural foundation laid by bhakti saints such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji (born 1630) founded Swarajya, captured and strengthened forts, created a full-time navy, and used guerrilla warfare to resist the Bijapur Sultanate and Mughals.
• Shivaji’s coronation in 1674 at Raigad with full Vedic rites marked the formal beginning of the Maratha Empire; he later undertook the dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya.
• After Shivaji’s death in 1680, prolonged Mughal-Maratha wars ended with Aurangzeb’s failure; the Marathas under Tarabai expanded northward.
• The centralised state gave way to a decentralised structure in which the Peshwas (especially Bajirao I and Nanasaheb) drove pan-Indian expansion, briefly controlling areas up to Lahore and Attock.
• Maratha administration featured salaried officials, the aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala, chauth and sardeshmukhi, a strong emphasis on forts, and a navy that challenged European cartaz passes.
• The three Anglo-Maratha wars (1775–1818) ended Maratha power; the British effectively took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals.
• Maratha rule revived Sanskrit and Marathi, protected temples, promoted cultural syncretism (as in Thanjavur), and inspired later ideas of self-rule through the ideal of Swarajya.

Key terms and concepts

• Bhakti: Devotion to the divine; saints composed songs in regional languages for spiritual upliftment and social awareness.
• Jāgīr: Land assignment given by a ruler to a noble or soldier in return for service; the holder collected taxes from it.
• Swarājya: Shivaji’s vision of a sovereign kingdom with political, economic and cultural independence.
• Guerrilla warfare: Use of small, mobile groups, speed, surprise and terrain knowledge to defeat larger armies.
• Chauth: 25% tax levied on provinces not directly ruled by the Marathas in return for protection.
• Sardeshmukhi: Additional 10% tax on top of chauth.
• Aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala: Council of eight ministers (Pradhān, Amātya, Mantrī, Sachiv, Nyāyādhīsh, Panḍitrāo, Senāpatī, Sumant) assisting the Chhatrapati.
• Bārgīr: Cavalry soldier whose horse and equipment were provided by the state.
• Shiledār: Cavalry soldier who provided his own horse and equipment.
• Panchāyat: Local body of officials and prominent men that delivered justice; appeals could go to a Maratha chief.
• Moḍī script: Cursive form of Devanagari used for Maratha official correspondence.
• Rājyābhiṣheka shaka: Era started by Shivaji after his 1674 coronation.

Important facts

Cause and effect

• Bhakti movement and saints’ use of Marathi created cultural unity and political awareness → enabled Marathas to organise into a political power under Shivaji.
• Shivaji’s capture of coastal territory and need to protect trade → establishment of a permanent navy (revolutionary compared with Bijapur and Mughals).
• Smaller Maratha forces facing larger sultanate/Mughal armies + mountainous terrain → adoption of guerrilla warfare, leading to victories such as the defeat of Afzal Khan and the night raid on Shaista Khan.
• Aurangzeb’s execution of Sambhaji and capture of Raigad → Maratha capital shifted to Gingee; conflict spread to south India; Tarabai organised northward raids.
• Rapid expansion and power of regional chiefs → shift from centralised rule to decentralised structure under Peshwas; occasional indiscipline but also pan-Indian reach.
• Internal disunity among Maratha chiefs + British organisational and technological superiority → defeat in the three Anglo-Maratha wars and end of Maratha power in 1818.

Maps, sources and visuals

• Map (Fig. 3.9): Chhatrapati Shivaji’s kingdom c. 1680 showing territory under Shivaji, Ekoji’s territory, foreign powers, hill forts, coastal forts and ports from Arabian Sea to Bay of Bengal.
• Opening source: Quote from Ramachandrapant Amatya’s Ādnyāpatra (1715) warning against European merchants’ territorial and religious ambitions.
• Visuals to interpret: Raigad Fort palace entrance (1674 coronation site); Sindhudurg Fort; wāgh nakh; Shivaji’s seal with Sanskrit inscription; aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala diagram; Maratha coin with Devanagari-Persian script and Gaṇapati invocation; Thanjavur-style painting; mural of British surrender to Nana Phadnavis and Mahadji Shinde.
• Case study: Thanjavur Marathas under Serfoji II – multilingual culture, patronage of Carnatic music, Bharatanatyam, Dhanwantari Mahal and first native printing press.

Common misconceptions and exam pitfalls

• Do not claim the Marathas were merely “Hindu rulers fighting Muslims”; the text emphasises respect for other religions, sparing of religious places in Surat, and cultural syncretism in Thanjavur.
• Avoid stating the Mughals were the main power from whom the British took India; the chapter explicitly states the British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals.
• Distinguish chauth (25 %) from sardeshmukhi (additional 10 %); they were levied on areas not directly ruled, not as simple plunder.
• Remember forts were “the core of the state” and the main reason the Marathas survived Aurangzeb’s onslaught, not just symbols.
• Note that the navy used geography and tactics rather than technological superiority; do not overstate Maratha naval technology.
• Tarabai and Ahilyabai Holkar are presented as key architects of expansion and good governance; do not overlook their roles in favour of only male leaders.